Abstract
A growing body of qualitative and quantitative research has explored the potential benefits to mental health and well-being of open-water or “wild” swimming. To date, most studies have used small samples in specific locations, limiting generalisability, and have not distinguished open-water swimming from other forms of outdoor swimming, such as in open-air pools, raising questions about any additional benefits of wild swimming over and above swimming outside per se. Using survey data from n =1,200 recently recalled outdoor swimming visits across 19 different countries, we compared self-reported well-being outcomes for swims in either open-water (wild) locations or open-air pools. Additionally, we explored the degree to which satisfaction of the motivations identified by self-determination theory (i.e. autonomy, relatedness, and competence) may explain any differences. Swimming visits in both locations were associated with high levels of positive, and low levels of negative, well-being, as well as high levels of autonomy, relatedness and competence. Open-water swimming was, nonetheless, associated with significantly higher positive well-being than open-air pool swims, with mediation analysis indicating that feelings of greater autonomy and competence (but not relatedness) primarily accounted for the difference. Results for anxiety were more nuanced, perhaps because more competent swimmers were more likely to swim in less safe, more anxiety inducing, places. Results re-iterate, help explain, and support the generalisation of previous research reporting potential benefits of open-water swimming for mental health and well-being, and highlight the need to support further safe access to high quality open-water locations.
Reference
Wencke Groeneveld, Morris Krainz, Mathew P. White, Anja Heske, Lewis R. Elliott, Gregory N. Bratman, Lora E. Fleming, James Grellier, Craig W. McDougall, Mark Nieuwenhuijsen, Ann Ojala, Sabine Pahl, Anne Roiko, Matilda van den Bosch, Benedict W. Wheeler. 2025. The psychological benefits of open-water (wild) swimming: Exploring a self-determination approach using a 19-country sample. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 102558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2025.102558.